Reproductive endocrinology covers the range of endocrinological conditions that lead to irregular or absent menstrual periods and difficulty conceiving.

Examples include Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS), premature menopause, eating disorders and irregular periods, female/male infertility and testosterone deficiency states (hypogonadism).

Diabetes is a lifelong condition where your blood glucose levels are high. It occurs when your pancreas no longer produces insulin, or when your body is resistant to insulin. Insulin is required to carry glucose into cells.

Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular complications as well as complications involving the eyes, kidneys and feet, hence people with diabetes must manage their health carefully.

With proper care, people with diabetes can be in control of their disease.

Thyroxine is produced by the thyroid gland and is involved in controlling metabolism. Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland) may cause symptoms such as weight gain, constipation, cold intolerance, tiredness and irregular periods. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid gland) is associated with weight loss, palpitations, increased sweating, heat intolerance, tremors and irregular periods.

Thyroid nodules are lumps in the thyroid gland and they may be felt in the neck, or detected incidentally on imaging studies. They are common and although majority of thyroid nodules are not cancerous, people with thyroid nodules should be evaluated to exclude the presence of thyroid cancer.

Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones become structurally weak and are more likely to fracture or break. There are a number of endocrine conditions that are associated with osteoporosis.

Examples include overproduction of thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormones and
steroid hormones, as well as underproduction of female/male hormones. Treating osteoporosis is important to prevent fractures and its associated complications.

The prevalence of obesity is increasing. It is often associated with medical issues such as diabetes, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, fatty liver and sleep apnoea, and confers an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

Obesity may also be associated with difficulty in conceiving and pregnancy-related conditions like gestational diabetes.

High blood pressure is a very common condition and may be linked to endocrine conditions. It is important to consider this in situations such as severe/resistant hypertension, low potassium, hypertension associated with an adrenal nodule or obstructive sleep apnoea.

Diagnosing endocrine hypertension can lead to treatment targeted at the underlying cause and may lead to complete cure.

The pituitary gland is the body’s master gland, and is responsible for sending hormone signals to other glands in the body to get them to produce their hormone. Disease occurs when these glands make either too much or too little hormones. These include growth hormones, female/male hormones, thyroid hormones, steroid hormones and prolactin.

Sometimes, pituitary tumours are detected incidentally on imaging studies. Diagnosing these conditions is important as treatment (medical or surgical) may lead to a complete cure. In cases of hormonal deficiencies, diagnosing and replacing the relevant hormones can significantly improve health and quality of life.

PCOS is one of the most common reasons women see an endocrinologist for, affecting up to 1 in 5 women. It is a condition that affects the way that a woman’s ovaries work. Many women with PCOS experience symptoms such as acne, increased facial/body hair, scalp hair loss, difficulty losing weight, irregular periods and difficulty conceiving.

There is also an association with weight gain, insulin resistance and diabetes. Appropriate treatment can improve some or all of these symptoms.

Hypogonadism is when your sex hormones are low (testosterone in men and oestrogen in women). This can either originate from a central cause (from the pituitary gland), or from the gonads (testes in men and ovaries in women). The lack of hormones can cause an array of symptoms including reduced libido, reduced bone density, reduced fertility and affect your quality of life.

Identification of the underlying cause and applying the appropriate treatment can significantly improve your symptoms.

The adrenal glands are small triangle-shaped glands that sit above the kidneys and make several hormones. The adrenal cortex makes aldosterone (responsible for our salt and water balance), cortisol (responsible for our response to stress) and androgens (male hormones). The adrenal medulla makes adrenaline and noradrenaline, which are responsible for our fight-or-flight response.

Disorders of the adrenal glands include adrenal nodules, adrenal overactivity and adrenal underactivity.